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Can Parent Company be held responsible for liabilities of the subsidiary Company in Europe?

A limited liability company's shareholders are nevertheless not automatically held liable for the liabilities of the subsidiary. For instance , in Kodak Ltd v Clark ,it was held that even-though parent is having about 98% stake in its subsidiary , it does not give rise to give an agency type of relationship under English law.

A particular risk arises when a parent company is being sued for the actions of the board members of the its subsidiary. If parent company has appointed majority of the directors of subsidiary to look after the interest of parent company , and if a third party sustains loss due to actions of board of subsidiary , then in such scenarios , a parent company may be sued to recover the losses sustained with their subsidiary as described in Grantham R , " Liability of Parent Companies for the Actions of the Directors of the Subsidiaries , Company Lawyer , 18 (5) (1997) p.138.

Thus , if the majority of subsidiary company's board consists of the parent company's nominee directors and if loss is sustained by a third party , then in such scenario , a third party can sue the parent company for the actions of a subsidiary company.

Further ,Italy , Germany and France are now the members of the EU and they are bound by the European Company law now.

In Akzo Nobel v European Commission ( C-97 /08 ) , it was held by ECJ that there is a rebuttable liability resumption of parent companies for their subsidiary's cartel offenses in the case of 100 % shareholding.

Further , piercing of corporate veil, under EU law , ECJ can consider subsidiary companies as a single unit for competition objectives. If the parent is a monopoly which set up ten different subsidiaries to deem it to demonstrate as if there is a competition , then ECJ could consider all companies to be a single economic unit.

Hence , ECJ would never hesitate to pierce the corporate veil when a third party sustains a loss in a subsidiary due to actions of parent company in EU.

As now Italy , France , Germany is the member nations of the EU and falls under EU Single Market , any appeal( even court in Italy or Germany may held that parent company is not liable) on query relating to Parent company liable to subsidiary debts goes to ECJ , then ECJ will give such views given by it earlier in Akzo Nobel v European Commission ( C-97 /08 ) and in Wibru / Swissair and such decisions will be binding on the member nations of EU like Italy or France.

For instance , there has been a lot of controversies in UK as regards to Human rights violation under UK law as some provisions were inconsistent with the EU Human Rights Law. There were conflicts of opinion by UK courts and ECJ.

Later , UK has completed installed the ECJ Human Rights Regulations in its Act ( now UK Human Rights Act ) so as to avoid conflict with ECJ Human Rights Act.


May 29, 2010 | 5:46 PM Comentarios  0 comentarios



Conceiving and Drafting Terms of EPC Contracts














CONCEIVING AND DRAFTING OF TERMS OF EPC CONTRACTS

R.V.Seckar, F.C.S, I.C.S.A (UK), LLB.


This article has been published in the April 2010 Issue of Institute of Company Secretaries of India official magazine "Chartered Secretary". The web link is as follows:


http://www.icsi.edu/cs/April2010/Articles/ConceivingandDraftingtheTermsofEpcContractsbyR.V.Seckar4.pdf

INTRODUCTION
In drafting the EPC contracts, legal practitioners may use standard form contracts as a basis for their contract document. These template or boiler contracts offer a familiar starting point to lessen the drafting trouble and to make easy negotiation.

Of late, FIDIC ( The Federation Internationale des Ingenieurs Conseils) released a new form of contract that can be used in design and construction of projects thereby employing the same to the engineering ,procurement and construction contract or turnkey contracting basis. Under this contract, the FIDIC Conditions of Turnkey or EPC Projects (famously known as the silver book) is designed to handle scenarios where bids are invited on an international basis. It has been specifically designed for use in EPC and BOT contracts. However, law firms and big contractors will have their own in-house standard EPC contract and for these parties, silver book may act as a solid reference to update and review their in-house standard forms. For those law firms and contractors, who do not have standard EPC, contract forms may use the Silver Book for drafting their EPC contract terms. (Huse 2002:48).

However, there are obvious tensions between a project company and a contractor where a turnkey EPC contract is used. The drafters of EPC contract has to pay special attention to the allocation of project risks and with specific reference to the drafting of common terms in EPC contracts. Else, the contractor’s interest will be affected, and he may have to incur pecuniary losses. This research essay analyses the points to be taken into consideration while drafting the terms of international EPC contract and allocation of risks in the EPC contract so that interests of both the contracting parties
are secured.

Analysis

An EPC Contract is also known as the fast-track contract. It combines three stages of construction contract under the ambit of one contract. It combines the construction, procurement and engineering aspects into one single contract. It facilitates the growth on a project to proceed on an overlapping basis than if the three stages haven been taken over in series.

The “package deal” or “turnkey arrangement” or “design or build “, “cle-en-main” or “EPC” imposes the duty to construct and design solely on the contractor. There is no standard explanation for each of these terms in the construction sector. The phrase ‘turnkey” connotes the most extreme structure of placing the design and construction obligation on the contractor , such that after completion, the employer will be given the key to project to start the operation of the constructed project. The term ‘turnkey’ or “EPC” are being explained the more in general global arrangement of placing all procurement, all design, construction responsibilities on a single contractor.
There are potential complex contractual structures in any BOT (Build, Operate and Transfer) contract. In majority cases, the BOT projects will employ either an EPC or a turnkey contract for the actual construction and design aspect of the contract. Hence, a BOT is not a separate style of construction contracting but rather a technique of financing the project. In case of BOT contract, the lenders will have considerable sway on the condition of the underlying construction contract including the prerequisites that such a contract be on a turnkey basis or in the guise of an EPC contract.

In BOT contract, the operation period between finishing and transfer also offers the transferee a chance to authenticate the quantity and quality of the productivity of the completed project work. Accordingly, in a BOT contract, a contractor may be obliged to give training of the transferee’s employees before the actual transfer of the project is completed thereby easing any possible tension that may arise in the contract.

The contract provision should be drafted by taking into consideration the accelerated deterioration of the work at the time of transfer of the project. Thus, a transferee will be required to pay attention to maintain the operator’s incentive to maintain the workflow properly and to circumvent any deterioration in the final phase of the contract just before the transfer to the transferee. The operator may in an effort to save on costs and at the terminal phase of the operating period, the contractor may indulge in a slowdown in the maintenance and operating expenditures resulting in accelerated worsening of the work scenario. Thus, contract provision in some BOT contract is drafted in such a manner by placing the responsibility on the operator to assume liability for defects for a shorter period subsequent to the transfer.

Various types of Construction Contracts
Procurement Contract
It offers for the methodical sourcing of work and supplies for a project. This contract includes stipulations that demand the architect or an engineer to perform the following functions:
 To frame bidding guidelines for equipment, machinery and supplies
 To carry out an economic evaluation of the bids received.
 To arrange for export licenses and other governmental permissions, which are essential for the import or export of supplies, materials, equipments and machinery to the project site.
 To organise financial functions such as reviewing of invoices, forecasting the cash flow needs and overseeing of accounting records.
In a majority of contracts, often no separate procurement contract is employed especially in project financing and for the obvious reasons, a separate engineering contract is not employed. Instead, the turnkey construction contract is made to include all procurement work until the financial closure is successfully completed. (Hoffman 2008:170).

Construction Contract:
This contract oversees the complete construction activities of the project. Thus, in a construction contract, the contractor undertakes to offer all constructions –associated services including organisation of labour, supervision of the construction, management of tools, supplies, construction facilities, field engineering and site investigation. (Hoffman 2008:170).
“EPC Contract”

In an EPC contract, the contract structure will be much complicated as many numbers of participants are involved in the implementation of the project. Thus, either an EPC or a BOT contract is often is not as simple as its definition connotes. There may be the large number of parties involved under complex contract structure. For instance, in a hydroelectric project, the concerned government has granted a concession to the project development company. This project development company has in turn entered into separate contracts for the construction of the facility, its operation and maintenance during such concession phase and to enter into a power purchase agreement (PPA) with an electrical supply utility. A consortium of contractors was assigned with the turnkey contract for the construction of the facility. Again, each of the turnkey contractors was also an equity stakeholder of the EPC contracting company as they will have to subscribe some portion of the equity of the project development company. Further, one of the subsidiaries of the turnkey contractor was assigned with the operation of the facility after the completion of the project. Thus, in an EPC or a BOT project which involves a typical power plant construction contract, contract has to be drafted by taking into account of this complex structure.

Where a project is undertaken by a State or by a political entity, the EPC contractor assumes further risks in that project as the project may be affected due to future happenings. A successor government gaining to the power, whether it may be a federal, state or local may try to dishonour either the some part or the whole part of an EPC project contract entered into by the predecessor government. A best illustration of this type of action by a successor government to modify or change an EPC contract entered into by an earlier government is the Enron-Dabhol power project in India. In such cases, it is wise to incorporate termination payments and termination provisions in an EPC contract in favour of Project Company. If the government failed to honour its legal commitments, then these damage payments is due by the defaulting government to the project company. It is sound to add a so-called statement of binding impact to other agreements or an implementation with the host nation. (Hoffman 2008:158).
Further it is prudent to add a waiver of sovereign immunity clause in the EPC contract if it is entered with a host nation’s government or with an entity owned by a host nation. For instance , in “Texaco Overseas Oil Petroleum Co / California Asiatic Oil Co v Libyan Arab Republic “, it was held that the government cannot employ its sovereignty to ignore obligations and cannot cancel the privileges of the contracting party who has executed its multiple duties under the contract through an internal order of the government .( Hoffman 2008:158).

In case of sovereign immunity, a government may waive such immunity either through explicit or implicit actions. In Morgan Guaranty Trust Co v. Republic of Palau, the Republic’s sovereign immunity was waived by the President of the Republic while entering into loan agreements with companies of U.S.A origin in respect of construction of power plants. Later, the financing company sued the Republic when it failed to make payment under a guarantee and defaulted on its payment obligations. It was held by the court that Republic was under obligation to reimburse the guarantors. According to court, the President of the Republic by signing the agreement and by supporting the financing with the “full faith and credit of the Republic” has the obligation to honour the commitments made already. (Hoffman 2008:159).


In Saudi Arabia v Arabian Oil Co (Armco) , it was held by an International Arbitration tribunal that laws of Saudi Arabia had to be supplemented or construed by the general principles of law, by the practice and customs and usage in the oil business and by thoughts of untainted jurisprudence and the defendant rights could not be “protected in an authentic style by the legislation in force in Saudi Arabia..


In “Mobil Oil Iran Inc v. Islamic Republic of Iran” , as regards to applicable law in a contract, the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal has often corroborated its stand on applicability of law by having recourse to its own international nature. An issue of confiscation will always look at in the background of applicable international law only irrespective of the fact of the law preferred by the parties.

Financial institutions and banks will offer a further stipulation while granting finance to the project as to offer them some certainty as to their financial risk. Thus, lenders may be placed with a significant amount of certainty if lump-sum bidding or if much risk is placed on the contractor for completion of the project.

EPC, Turnkey and design –bid contract

There are a lot of dissimilarities exists between these contracts. Under an EPC contract, the contractor offers all the engineering, procurement and construction. In a design-bid contract, the employer offers the design, which often includes the description of materials to be used and other major construction parameters. Under a turnkey contract, it is the obligation of the contractor to supply the final design of the project.

Thus, under EPC contract, the contractor will be held responsible for any defect in the construction, design or performance of the works. The employer has to demonstrate to what degree resultant damage was caused by defective design or by the faulty construction under a design-bid –build contract. (Huse 2002: ix).

Under EPC contract, both the design and construction are placed on the contractor along with a harsh standard of performance. The standard of performance applicable will be contained in the contract or in the non-existence of any explicit provision, by the applicable law. Under the Silver Book, the standard is “fitness for purpose.” As laid down in English case law namely IBA v EMI and BICC , a turnkey key contractor is under strict liability to deliver the work ‘fit for the purpose” for which it was constructed. . (Huse 2002:18).

To choose the best design and quality of work, in EPC contract, the bidding process will be consisting of five stages; pre-feasibility, feasibility, bidding, evaluation of bids and award of the contract and the negotiation. Such phased bidding will help the employer to first evaluate the quality of the design at first and then only the bid price.
The fitness for purpose standard can be explained a stricter standard than a “professional “duty of care as it places onerous on the contractor for any defect or failure of design to perform to the standards needed.

The drafters of EPC contract shall give more significance to the following issues while drafting an EPC contract.
The Scope and Definition of the Works:

The scope of work has to be clearly drafted and requirement of an employer should de drafted preciously to define the liability of the contractor for design, construction and performance.

Any Increase in the price

The real issue for suppliers and EPC contractors working in current’s unpredictable materials price inflation scenario such as cement, steel is that forecasting, quoting and executing chief construction contracts becomes a confront and many contractors incur major pecuniary losses or attrition of expected incomes since the most of the construction contractors are bound by predetermined-priced EPC contracts where they have to accept the risk of increases in both supplier and material costs.
Devoid of a distinctly worded price appreciation provision that permits for a modification to the price of the contract due to the occurrence of an unforeseen event or, an unforeseen increase in the whole-sale prices of major construction related materials, a contractor may have to bear the unbearable pecuniary loss. Further, an EPC contractor may not get a relief as, even if the contract has turned to be onerous, which will not normally be adequate legal stances for execution of the contract to be exempted by the courts. (Kerur 2005).

Since, EPC contract is a fixed price or lump-sum price contract, unless the contract specifically provides for a price increase due to the occurrence of some modifications or events. It is wise to add a price increase clause in the EPC contract to safeguard the interest of the contractor against price volatility in the near future. For instance, the courts in U.S.A hold parties responsible for their contractual agreements. For instance, in Iowa Electric Light and Power Co v. Atlas Corp , the court ordered that the uranium supplier had to honour his contractual obligation to supply the uranium to the utility though the price of the Uranium to the supplier had increased considerably later. This case stresses the significance to include “price escalation clause “in an EPC contract to safeguard against the incurring of financial loss due to price escalation in the later date. Further, in an EPC contract, contractual provisions can be included in the contract to pardon performance upon the happening of discussed events like price increases. In Eastern Airlines v. McDonnell Douglas Corp, the court held that the doctrine of force majeure clause will not be applicable where a future event was particularly mentioned in the contract. (Hoffman 2008:192).

Since the contractor assumes overall control over the project, the employer may desire to restrict the capacity of the contractor to obtain such increases. Generally, courts are unrelenting that a contractor must carry out the construction work at the rate agreed especially in predetermined-priced EPC contracts, which assign risk and, which do not contain a precise clause permitting for modification in prices. In the present economic scenario, EPC contract’s tender prices are towering and service providers insist that if the project owners are ready to share more risk, then they will get more competitive bids. For instance, EPC contract awarded by Dubai municipality are footed on FIDIC contract stipulations but so far, do not mirror the suggestion by FIDIC that terms for modifications in bids for variations in cost should be introduced where it might be unjust for a service provider to assume the whole of the risk of increasing costs associated with inflation. From the perspective of a project owner, the notion of conveyancing a price-increase provision in a contract may appear like issuing a blank cheque, albeit he might be profit out of it. If the contract is allowing the contractor to charge his rate on current prices and any real enhancement, rather than a standard-price quotation with tentative eventualities, in such cases, the project owners might save some handsome money and may avoid any unwanted delay and overrun in the timely construction of the project.

In any EPC contract, price-escalation provisions should have the clause which should recognise the exact materials regarded to be unstable and the prices per unit for such project materials is to be charged that prevailed at the time when the contract is completed. Normally, these provisions should illustrate unambiguously that the project owner will be responsible for any increases in price in those basic construction materials like cement, steel and the total price of contract to be augmented by a settled percentage to offset the loss due to price escalation. A rational provision will lay out periods of notice for recognition of price augmentation and to shun disagreements at later dates, to audit and verify the category of documentation demonstrating the price increase, the incident that activated such a boost in price of contract, what is the proper assessment of the market price, what are the time periods covered and how frequent the increase in the contract price can be made.

Onus for the design supplied by the employer
In an EPC contract, it should be wise to allocate the risk pertaining to design supplied by the employer between the parties by way of specific provision.

Employer Risks:

An EPC contract has to specify the risks associated with the employer.

Performance Guarantee

There should be provision in the EPC contract for the performance guarantee by the contractor by way of providing bank guarantee or other guarantee or by way of retention money.

Completion

An EPC contract should contain a provision as regards to extent and nature of completion needed before the employer takes over the works. It is to be ascertained whether any performance tests are to be made before or after such completion. Thus, under the customary design-bid –build contract, the designer and construction contractor will be held liable for varied yardsticks of performance for the completion of the works. It is to be noted that designers in many countries are not needed to undertake for results, but rather method. It is expected from them that they have higher supreme knowledge on the subject, competent enough and can finish the design with a rational magnitude of technical skill. For instance, Surf Realty Corp v. Standing , U.S court held that the designer, while preparing the drawings and design, should exercise his ability and skill, taste and judgement rationally and without neglect. Thus, this principle needs a professional duty of care. (Huse 2002: 18).

Liability for Defects

An EPC contract should include a provision as to decide the period of time up to which the contractor will be held responsible for rectifying any defect that may occur in the works.

Consortium or a Joint Venture

In case , if a contractor uses a consortium or a joint venture for the project , a specific provision will need to be included that it is essential to elect a representative among consortium with adequate decision-taking authority to facilitate interaction with the employer.

Other matters
Provisions relating to contractor's duty to safety and protection, to adhere to local laws and regulations have to be drafted.

A drafter of an EPC contract should take all the above points into consideration while drafting the contract. (Huse 2002:24).

Allocation of Risk in EPC Contract;

In an EPC contract, the risk allocation will be made in the following manner. The project company will assume the market risk and in a power project, the power purchaser will accept the risk to a limited extent. The EPC contractor will assume the design, construction and commissioning risks. The risks arising out of operation and maintenance will be borne by the O& M contractor. The overall political risk like rebellion, war and delays by authorities will be borne by the respective government, mainly through concession agreement. It is recommended that the respective government should accept these political risks as they are the sole party who could either influence or control it and can lessen its impacts.

Provisions that concerned with risk allocation have to be drafted so that it would reflect the language of the agreement and other concession. Further, it has to take into account the considerations like identical language for extension of time and force majeure events. Such back-to-back language minimises the extent of gaps and vagueness between various agreements.

A dispute resolution clause in the EPC contract will not only save the time but also cost and helps to find a fast solution to any issue between the parties. (Huse 2002: 48).
There are four fundamental risk-of-loss methodologies that an owner can impose in his EPC contract.

a) Demand the EPC contractor to wholly responsible and to totally indemnify the owner, all for all, possible losses.
b) Discharge the EPC contractor from indemnity and responsibility and to fully reimburse or indemnify the owner for all damages or losses.

c) Impose an overall ceiling limit on the EPC contractor’s responsibility and indemnify for selected or for all losses.
d) Adjust or modify one or more of the approaches mentioned in tune with the owner’s predestined risk management program. (Bramble & West 1999:105)
The other parameters are as follows:

1. EPC contractor should be imposed with the sufficient risk to motivate them to execute the contract in a professional style. However, imposing of unreasonable or excessive risk will hinder innovation and maybe yield negative results.

2. Risk allocation should be footed on the profit or return that the party espousing risks that may actually have anticipated from its participation in the project.

3. The extent of control over the risk to be distributed must be taken into account in establishing a suitable allocation of responsibility.

4. It should be seen that the party is having the ability to cover the risk through insurance or by other methods, which are a crucial element in risk allocation. ( Bramble and West 1999 :101)

5. Full indemnity and responsibility are obtained from EPC contractors by owners for all equipments and tools either owned or rented by the contractor used in the project site.

6. For all equipments and tools supplied or loaned by the owner to the contractor, full responsibility is placed on the EPC contractor for use in carrying out the work and many owners contractually negate such representation or fitness for such an equipment and tool.

7. In some scenarios, the owner and the contractor may agree to share losses and responsibilities equally or jointly. Here, only to the degree of a proportionate share of negligence, each party would agree to indemnify each other. Thus, by agreement or through a court or through a commercial arbitration, each party’s liability will be determined in case of loss due to negligence.

In the case of EPC hydro contracts, contractors always reluctant to forward their bid unless they are short listed in a prequalification bid due to expenses and time involved in this process. Minimal design particulars are offered by the project companies in the prequalification bid document. This will put the tenderer with the onus of developing the design to the point where he can confidently submit a firm price. In hydro electric EPC contract, more than four or more companies are to be involved in a consortium to offer the overall services to be provided, which habitually set hurdles to the bidding process. (Head 2000:5).

In hydro electric project, the management of risks due to flooding during construction of the project is effectively a commercial decision, thereby balancing the incremental expenses of augmented flood safeguard against the chances and outcomes of particular floods happening. This is mainly a concern of risk allocation between the contractor, the owner and the insurer and normally would not involve the host government. (Head 2000:19)

For instance, in a Turkey contract, geological risk in a hydro project is passed to the contractor from the project company. This is an obvious departure from the usual contract EPC terms. When the availability of work is very limited, some contractors dare to accept such risks, although it is highly debatable whether it is in either party’s interest.

For instance, in Philippine’s Casecnan power project, which includes about twenty-six kilometer tunnel and an underground power manufacturing unit, for which there was virtually no site investigation was possible and the contractor undertook the whole risk of unpredictable ground scenarios within his fixed price quote. However, he failed to carryout the contract and had to be replaced. Thus, assuming of unforeseen risk may cost an EPC contractor his job and his resources.

Likewise, in Malaysia’s Bakun hydroelectric project, an EPC contractor made a lump sum price bidding with no price escalation for unforeseen risks. In that project, excavation of tunnels has disclosed weaker rock conditions than expected, needing an addition of the steel liner. This is a common issue, but it cannot be anticipated in advance and may materialise only during the construction stage and will have huge cost implications that cannot be borne by the contractor due to its magnitude, especially in a lump sum EPC contract where if there is any absence of provision of price inflation for such an eventuality. In such scenarios, the EPC contractor may be able to restructure the cost effect by making some changes in design, but it may have an impact on the final quality of the project. Further, such design change may end in a debate over whether the proposed changes can be acceptable under the contract. (Head 2000:57).

In an EPC or turnkey project, competitive price bidding can be made possible with the certain kind of sharing of risks as mentioned below.

 EPC contract containing both a lump sum and re-measurable portion and re-measurement is mainly applicable to civil works and unexpected geological risks, especially in case of flooding, weaker rock conditions or other unforeseeable events.

 Restricting the re-measurable portion of contract hence the owner undertakes lesser risk leaving the contractor to assume an unlimited risk.

 A stratum approach where the employer, insurance company and the contractor bear some portion of risk in a predefined order.

 Cost overrun has to be shared on a predetermined percentage basis.

 Specific geological associated risk in the construction is to be passed on to the owner or the contractor but with reimbursement of additional expenses to avoid what had happened in Casecnan power project and in Bakun hydroelectric project.

Thus, an EPC contract may have risk-sharing formulas and in case of any additional cost of risk due to happening of an unforeseen incident has to be met by sponsors of the project through pumping in contingent equity, mainly to cater for the possible cost overruns. (Head 2000:57).
For instance, India was less successful in attracting private finance for its hydropower projects, mainly due to some risk allocation, which is hazardous to any project contractor. Hence, it revised power policy to encourage private foreign investment in its hydroelectric projects. The new pragmatic policies perused by the Indian government acknowledged the necessity to offer the private developer safeguard against wide varieties of natural risk over which such contractor has no sway. Thus, for risk arising out of an unforeseen natural predicament, EPC contractor will not be held liable. This may encourage a large number of international bidders to participate in a contract and may result in cost savings and timely completion of the project (Head 2000:62).

Ground Conditions:

Sub-clause 4.12 of the Silver Book acts as a reference for several reasons. Reading together with the sub-clause 4.10, it imposes all obligations on the contractor for unforeseen site scenarios. Thus, the contractor runs this risk despite whether the employer offered the information on the original site conditions or where the site conditions were, in fact, unpredictable. In fact, the aftermath of this clause is to make the contractor responsible for unpredictable or conditions, which are wholly out of the control of a contractor. Thus, under Silver Book, the contractor is imposed with the responsibility to bear the risk associated with unforeseen site conditions. In fact, the sub-clause 4.12 of the Silver Book spells out that there shall be no modification in the contract price to take account of any unforeseen costs or difficulties. For instance, countries like Malaysia and Hong Kong allocates risk for differing conditions solely on the contractor in the government contracts. (Huse 2002:144).

Sub –Contractor
Though an EPC contractor is authorised to entrust the wk to sub-contractors, the Silver Book sub-clause 4.4 spells out some mandatory provisions as regards to sub-contractors. The above sub-clause imposes the following:

 An EPC contractor cannot sub-contract the whole of the work to sub-contractors.

 It makes the EPC contractor liable for the activities of his agents, sub-contractors and employees.

Force Majeure Clauses

When the contracts have become frustrated or impossible, many contractors encountered with exhaustion all of their profit or poorer claim. Though, a legal drafter might have used terms in EPC contract such as "business impracticability", "impossibility", "force majeure" "aggravation of purpose", all these phrases have much in general, demand the truths to conform to well-demonstrated parameters.

Due to the occurrence of an unexpected event, if performance becomes "impossible”, a party may be condoned from carrying out a commitment under an EPC contract under the most legal system. However, there exists many numbers of legal precedents where courts were of the opinion that the doctrine of impossibility cannot be extended just because completion of the contract will happen to be more costly than earlier expected.

Majority of contractors is under the wrong impression that the availability of the force majeure clause will help them to succeed in their claim. It is to be noted that a force majeure clause is deployed into a contract as a way to safeguard parties if a section of the contract could not be completed due to the occurrence of some extraordinary incidence, which falls outside the control of the parties and which could not have been forbidden using rational care. Force majeure clause will ordinarily be seen in all the construction contracts but normally such provisions to grant a contractor some extra period to complete the contract. Hence, whereas a force majeure clause may facilitate a contractor some additional time to acquire materials that are in acute shortage, it is doubtful of help to him if he is compelled to bear much escalated prices of material than he formerly forecasted. The reality is that judges normally do not incline to permit somebody to get away from an obligation under a contract under the pre-text of force majeure clause. (Kerur 2005).

Conclusion

Thus, we have seen that drafting the provisions of an EPC contract is cumbersome and problematic. A drafter has to bear in various legal aspects while drafting the conditions and allocation of risks in an EPC contract.

Of late, FIDIC has released a new form of contract that can be used with design and construction of projects employing the engineering, procurement and construction contract or turnkey contracting basis. Under this contract, the FIDIC conditions of turnkey or EPC projects (famously known as the silver book) are designed to handle scenarios where bids are invited on an international basis. It has been specifically designed for use in EPC and BOT contracts. However, law firms and big contractors will have their own in-house standard EPC contract and for these parties, silver book may act as a solid reference to update and review their in-house standard forms. For those law firms and contractors, who do not have standard EPC, contractor or firms may use the Silver Book for drafting their EPC contract terms. (Huse 2002: 48).


Thus ,a legal drafter has to use not only standard terms as mentioned in the silver book but also to use his legal experience to cover force majeure , price escalation , sovereign immunity , unforeseen ground scenarios to safeguard the interest of the contracting parties . A well planned and conceived and methodologically drafted EPC contract will pay special attention to the allocation of project risks and with specific reference to the drafting of common terms in EPC contracts. Else, the contractor’s interest will be affected, and he may have to incur pecuniary losses. Thus, while drafting the terms of international EPC contract and allocation of risks in the EPC contract, serious considerations should be given while drafting of terms so that interests of both the contracting parties are properly secured.



List of Reference

Bramble Barry B & West Joseph D. (1999). Design Build Contracting Claims. Illinois: Aspen Publishers Online.

Head, Chris R. (2000). Financing of Private Power Projects. New York: World Bank Publications.

Hoffman Scott L. (2008). The Law and Business of International Project Finance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Huse, Joseph A. (2002). Understanding and negotiating turnkey and EPC contracts. New York: Sweet & Maxwell.

Kerur Sachin [June 16 2005]. Sharing the Risks. (Online) available from http://www1.fidic.org/resources/contracts/national/dubai_jun05.asp [accessed 30 October 2009).

Wilpert Bernhard & Fahlbruch Babette. (2002). System Safety: Challenges and Pitfalls of Intervention. New York: Emerald Group Publishing.

April 15, 2010 | 1:21 AM Comentarios  0 comentarios



FINANCING YOUR PROJECT THROUGH INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION
Relacionado a un país: India

Translations disponible también en: Inglés (original) | Francés | Español | Italiano | Alemán | Portugués | Sueco | Ruso | Holandés | Arabe

FINANCIAR SU PROYECTO CON LA CORPORACIÓN DE FINANZAS INTERNACIONALES
Automatically translated into Spanish thanks to WorldLingo
FINANCIANDO SU PROYECTO CON LA CORPORACIÓN de FINANZAS INTERNACIONALES

este artículo se ha publicado en la 'secretaria cargada “del instituto de las secretarias de compañía de la India”.

Se ha clasificado este artículo como uno del artículo que se leerá por el instituto de contables cargados de la India, Nueva Deli.


DESPUÉS DE QUE la introducción de reformas económicas en la India en
el año 1991, las inversiones extranjeras comenzara a fluir en
el mercado indio. Aunque la liberalización económica atestiguó
muchos cambios estructurales en economía india, el flujo de fondos
extranjeros no ha estado hasta el nivel previsto como en el caso
de China. La India sigue siendo muy cautelosa en permitir los fondos extranjeros
con convertibilidad lleno-capital de la cuenta debido a la agitación
económica que fue atestiguada: en algunos países asiáticos surorientales
en el año 1998.
Había relajaciones considerables en la política de la inversión extranjera no prohibiendo al 100% la inversión extranjera con las ventajas de la repatriación hasta Rs. los crores 15J30 'en el capital de acciones ordinarias de compañías engancharon a las actividades de la infraestructura, permitiendo que los inversionistas institucionales extranjeros inviertan en las bolsas indias, permitiendo inversiones por NRI en las compañías indias y en las firmas etc de la sociedad los embotellamientos procesales se han quitado para atraer fondos más extranjeros. Otras compañías indias son: permitido; a la fuente sus fondos de la deuda en internacional: mercados permitiendo préstamos comerciales externos en tipos de interés más baratos. El procedimiento para los collaborations y compartir de los conocimientos técnicos técnicos se ha hecho fácil ahora. Las compañías indias siguen siendo renuentes golpear ligeramente los mercados internacionales para el sourcing los fondos de la equidad y de la deuda.
•Muchos proyectos privados de la energía, los proyectos portuarios y el desarrollo de caminos son altamente costosos y requieren los fondos extranjeros del substancial para los machineries, las herramientas y los repuestos de la importación .of. Muchos de sociedades infraestructurales están intentando levantar fondos extranjeros de los bancos extranjeros o de los colaboradores financieros extranjeros del institución o extranjeros del gobierno o extranjeros o de contratistas de EPC.
- La corporación de finanzas internacionales, miembro, del grupo del banco mundial, que se compone del banco para la reconstrucción internacional y el desarrollo (IBRD), la asociación de desarrollo internacional (IDA) y la agencia internacional multilateral de la garantía (MIGA); es la fuente multilateral más grande del the* del préstamo y el financiamiento de equidad, para el sector privado proyecta en el mundo que se convierte. La puntería principal de IFC es financiar los proyectos del sector privado, ayudando a las compañías en el mundo que se convierte a movilizar el financiamiento en los mercados financieros internacionales y proporcionando consejo y la asistencia técnica al negocio y a los gobiernos.
El IFC ofrece un arsenal de productos financieros y de servicios a las compañías en sus países de miembro que se convierten como -
• Préstamos a largo plazo en modernidades importantes en las tarifas fijas o variables.
• Inversiones de equidad.
• instrumentos de la Cuasi-equidad (préstamos subordinados, acción preferida, notas de la renta).
• Garantías y financiamiento espera. a
• • Gerencia de riesgo (la mediación del tipo de la modernidad y
de interés intercambia, disposición de las instalaciones de la protección). •
IFC también ayudan a estructurar los paquetes financieros del `, coordinating el financiamiento de extranjero e Iqcal.banks y las compañías y las agencias de la exportación. Para ser elegible para el financiamiento de IFC, el proyecto debe ser provechoso para los inversionistas, beneficiar la economía del anfitrión-país - país y conformarse con las pautas ambientales rigurosas, IFC puede actuar como catalizador para la inversión privada y su participación en un proyecto realza confianza de inversionista y atrae a otros prestamistas y accionistas. .
Los CRITERIOS PARA LA DECISIÓN de la INVERSIÓN de IFC
para recibir IFC que financia, un proyecto deben resolver un número
de las pautas de I.FC como - -
• el proyecto debe estar en el sector privado,
• debe ser técnico sano,
• debe tener una buena perspectiva de ser provechoso,
• debe beneficiar la economía local.
Para asegurar la participación de los inversionistas privados de .other, inversión
de IFC en generalmente limitado hasta el 25% del coste total del proyecto.
La inversión en proyecto pequeño y medio se extiende de $ ' 1.00.000
a $ 1 millón y en proyectos clasificados estándares de $ 1 millón a
$100 millones. " ' . El ■
incluso las compañías más sanas de países en vías de desarrollo tiene a menudo dificultad en levantar finanzas de proyecto a largo plazo en términos razonables, las ofertas de IFC una variedad de productos financieros para llenar este boquete como modernidades importantes de los préstamos del largo plazo en las tarifas fijas o variables, las inversiones de la equidad y de la cuasi-equidad, las garantías y financiamiento a la escucha. Los paquetes de las finanzas a largo plazo que se extienden a partir de $10 millones a $ 400 millones se pueden proporcionar por IFC.
La ELEGIBILIDAD PARA LAS INVERSIONES de IFC
allí no es ningún uso estándar para el financiamiento de IFC. Una compañía, o el intentar del empresario, extranjero o doméstico establecer una nueva empresa o de ampliar una empresa existente puede acercar a IFC
2. Patrocinio, gerencia y asistencia técnica:

• Historia y negocio de patrocinadores, incluyendo financiero. información
• Arreglo de la gerencia y vitae propuestos de los nombres y de los planes de estudios de encargados.
• Descripción de los arreglos técnicos y la otra ayuda externa (gerencia, producción, comercialización y finanzas, etc.)
3. Mercado y ventas
• Orientación básica del mercado: local, nacional, regional o exportación.
• Volúmenes de la producción, precios unitarios, objetivos de ventas y cuota de mercado proyectados de propuesto, empresa. ¡! f
• Usuarios potenciales de los productos y de los canales de distribución que se utilizarán. Actual fuente de la fuente para los productos.
• Futuro. Competición y posibilidad que el mercado se pueda satisfacer por los productos substitutos.

• Protección o importar-restricciones de la tarifa que afectan productos.
• Factores críticos que determinan potencial de mercado.
4: Viabilidad técnica; mano de obra, recursos de la materia prima y ambiente.
• Breve descripción del proceso de fabricación.
• Los comentarios sobre complejidades técnicas especiales y la necesidad de
saben-ahora y las habilidades especiales, _-; -.
• Surtidores posibles del equipo.
B. Disponibilidad de la mano de obra y de las instalaciones de la infraestructura (transporte, comunicaciones, energía, agua etc.)
• Avería de los gastos de explotación proyectados por categorías importantes de gastos.
• Fuente, coste y calidad de la fuente y de las relaciones de la materia prima
con industrias de la ayuda. '“
• Restricciones de importación en las materias primas requeridas.
• Tamaño propuesto de la planta en comparación con otras plantas conocidas.
• Ediciones ambientales potenciales y cómo se tratan estas ediciones.
5. ¡Requisitos de la inversión, financiamiento del proyecto y vueltas!
• La estimación del coste total del proyecto, analizada en la tierra, construcción, instaló los equipos y el fondo de operaciones, componente indicar-extranjero del intercambio.
• Empresa financiera propuesta del structure^, indicando fuentes y términos previstos del financiamiento de la equidad y de deuda.
• Tipo de préstamo, de equidad o ambo y de cantidad del financiamiento de IFC.
• , Estado financiero proyectado, información sobre lo beneficioso y
vuelta en la inversión.


Proyecte en el contexto del desarrollo económico del gobierno y del plan de inversión.
• Incentivos específicos y ayuda del gobierno disponibles para
el proyecto
• Contorno de las regulaciones del gobierno sobre controles de intercambio… y condiciones de la entrada capital, y de repatriaciones.
7. Tabla de tiempo considerada para la preparación y la terminación del proyecto.

Con excepción de la participación en el proyecto, IFC también ofrece una amplia gama de productos financieros a sus clientes. Esto permite que IFC ofrezca una mezcla del financiamiento que se adapta a la reunión las necesidades de cada proyecto. Éstos se pueden clasificar ampliamente bajo cabezas siguientes:
1. Los préstamos
de los préstamos son el producto más grande de IFC. IFC proporciona fijo y los préstamos de tarifa variable en un de los conduciendo modernidad-Estos préstamos tienen típicamente madurez de 8 de 12 años, con un período de gracia y los horario de reembolso determinados en un caso para encajonar. Base de acuerdo con las necesidades del flujo de liquidez del prestatario: Si es autorizado por el proyecto, IFC proporciona préstamos de más largo plazo y períodos de gracia más largos.
2. La equidad
IFC se considera un inversionista pasivo. IFC generalmente mantiene las inversiones de equidad por un período de 8 a 15 años y se considera un inversionista a largo plazo.
3. La Cuasi-Equidad
IFC proporciona una gama completa de las finanzas de la cuasi-equidad incluyendo obligaciones convertibles; préstamos subordinados, préstamos con las autorizaciones y otros instrumentos.
4. Otros productos financieros
IFC también ofrecen otros productos financieros tales como modernidad y el tipo de interés intercambia, las opciones, los contratos a plazo y otros productos derivados.
La gerencia de riesgo de IFC mantiene el foco en aconsejar sobre las estrategias de la protección, intermediating la compra de. instrumentos de la protección, movilizando la participación de los bancos internacionales en tales transacciones en un riesgo que comparte base y que promueve el desarrollo de los mercados de capitales locales trayendo estas técnicas a las instituciones financieras del local:
El otro products* financiero ofreció por IFC incluye líneas del crédito y de la equidad, el capital de empresa y el alquiler con opción a compra. ¡! ,
VALORACIÓN DEL PROYECTO POR IFC
• Típicamente, un equipo de la valoración abarca a oficial de la inversión con financiero - maestría y conocimiento del país en el cual el proyecto está situado y un ingeniero con la maestría
relevante, técnica.
• El equipo es responsable completamente de evaluar los aspectos técnicos, financieros y económicos del; proyecto. Este proceso exige visitas al sitio propuesto del proyecto y extenso discusiones con los patrocinadores de proyecto.
• Después de volver a los cuartos principales, el equipo somete sus recomendaciones a la gerencia mayor. ^
• Si financiar el proyecto es approved1, departamento jurídico de IFC, con ayuda de consejos exteriores como apropiado, bosqueja documentos apropiados.
• Las ediciones excepcionales se negocian con el gobierno de la compañía, o someten a las instituciones financieras implicadas y el proyecto a la junta directiva de IFC para su aprobación.

DESEMBOLSO Y SUPERVISIÓN DE PRÉSTAMO
• Después de la aprobación de tablero, los desembolsos se hacen de conformidad con los documentos jurídicos convenidos por todos los partidos,
• IFC supervisa sus inversiones de cerca, consulta periódicamente con la gerencia. Envía misiones del campo para visitar la empresa y requiere el informe sobre la marcha de los trabajos junto con la información sobre el factor que pudo afectar materialmente la empresa en la cual ha invertido.
• También requiere los estados financieros anuales revisados por los contables públicos independientes.

El PROGRAMA IFC de la GERENCIA de RIESGO
de IFC está permitiendo que los clientes del sector privado en el mundo que se convierte tuvieran acceso a los mercados derivados internacionales para cercar .currency, tipo de interés o exposición del precio de materia, permite a estas compañías realzar su worthiness del crédito y lo beneficioso a largo plazo.
La EXPOSICIÓN de MODERNIDAD de la PROTECCIÓN
por ejemplo, una compañía de fabricación de acero egipcia puede tener una responsabilidad japonesa existente de los Yenes, que representa el financiamiento atractivo de una fuente del desarrollo-financiamiento. Si los réditos de la exportación de la compañía y los costes entrados se denominan sobre todo en dólares de los E.E.U.U., la compañía tendrá unión mal hecha de una modernidad 'exponer adentro a los movimientos del cambio de Yen/US $. IFC puede proporcionar un intercambio que permita a la institución convertir con eficacia su tarifa fija no, obligación de la modernidad de los E.E.U.U. $ adentro a una obligación de los E.E.U.U. $. Este intercambio de modernidad permite que la empresa siderúrgica convierta los flujos de liquidez del servicio de deuda de los Yenes en la base de la modernidad de sus réditos de los E.E.U.U. $. Por lo tanto, la volatilidad futura en la renta que resulta de la unión mal hecha de modernidad en este préstamo particular se elimina.
La EXPOSICIÓN del TIPO de INTERÉS de la PROTECCIÓN
en otro ejemplo, un proyecto de la energía en Guatemala puede necesitar arreglar un contrato fijo de la tarifa con el gobierno local basado en réditos futuros previstos. Si la mayoría de su financiamiento lleva un tipo de interés flotante basado sobre LIBOR (tarifa ofrecida inter banco de Londres) otra vez ésta expondrá su corriente futura de la renta a las fluctuaciones que reflejan los movimientos en el LIBOR bajo clasifican. El proyecto puede por lo tanto protegerse contra los movimientos del interés en la tarifa baja de LIBOR. El proyecto puede por lo tanto protegerse contra volatilidad del tipo de interés ejecutando un intercambio de tipo de interés con IFC donde el proyecto paga un tipo de interés fijo a IFC y recibe un tipo de interés flotante. Los flujos de liquidez en este intercambio se pueden estructurar para emparejar exactamente las cantidades principales excepcionales del préstamo subyacente (basado en el horario de la amortización). Desde el servicio de deuda del proyecto en su, que flota la tarifa préstamo está emparejar-por el flujo de liquidez flotante de la tarifa recibido de intercambio de IFC, el proyecto se va con una obligación fija de la tarifa.
EXPOSICIÓN de la PROTECCIÓN COMMODITY-PRICE
muchas compañías en los mercados que emergen, particularmente ésos implicados en la producción de materias básicas (e.g. el oro, de, los minerales) se exponen al riesgo materia-específico del precio. Dependiendo de la naturaleza de la materia y del mercado para esa materia, esta exposición se puede cercar a través de materia intercambia y excedente - las opciones contrarias.
Por ejemplo, un productor africano del oro puede no tener acceso a los mercados comerciales para cercar su riesgo del precio de oro. Esto lo puso bajo desventaja competitiva en lo referente a productores desarrollados del oro del país. Para evitar este problema, IFC puede instalar una facilidad por el que intermedio entre esa compañía y los mercados de la protección del gojd ponga las estructuras de más largo plazo de la protección a disposición ese cliente.
La PARTE DE LAS INDUSTRIAS INDIAS QUE UTILIZABAN EL PAQUETE FINANCIERO de proyectos
indios de IFC tres recibió deuda la ayuda de la equidad del IFC, Washington, sumando $ 72.23 millones (Rs. 317.81 Crores) según apenas el informe anual lanzado del IFC por el año terminó el 30 de junio de 1999. Hasta el 30 de junio de 1999 IFC ha asistido a 120 empresas indias que implicaban una cantidad de $ 1.71 mil millones incluyendo préstamo y el syndication organizado por el IFC, la ayuda total de la equidad a. Las empresas indias resuelven a $ 2.17 mil millones. El informe anual observa que para 1999 fiscal, IFC comisión creciente de sus propios recursos a $ 2.8 mil millones y movilizado otro $ 800 millones adentro syndicated préstamos a los proyectos en 79 países en vías de desarrollo. En 1998, IFC había confiado menos abeto su propia cuenta, $ 2.7 mil millones, pero syndicated préstamos era más alto en $ 2.4 mil millones. La declinación adentro syndicated préstamos - “refleja el mundo difícil que el ambiente financiero que condujo muchos bancos comerciales a la reducción su exposición a los países en vías de desarrollo, dice el informe. El año pasado, las inversiones de IFC ganaron a beneficio neto de $ 249 millones, un aumento leve 1998's excesivo $ 246 millones.




October 24, 2009 | 2:12 AM Comentarios  0 comentarios



KODAK HAS TO REORGANISE ITS PRODUCTS TO CHANGING TECHNOLOGY !
Translations disponible también en: Inglés (original) | Francés | Español | Italiano | Alemán | Portugués | Sueco | Ruso | Holandés | Arabe

¡KODAK TIENE QUE REORGANIZAR SUS PRODUCTOS A LA TECNOLOGÍA QUE CAMBIA!
Automatically translated into Spanish thanks to WorldLingo
Recordarán a George Eastman para siempre cerca la humanidad para su invención del rodillo filma. Su invención tiene revolutionalized la industria de la película. Un flexible, rodar-tipo, película de la cámara fotográfica del celuloide era la gran invención de George Eastman [1879-1932] en el campo de las películas de la fotografía y de la película.

La familia estaba financieramente en apuro cuando el padre de Eastman murió en 1862, y él también perdió a su solamente hermana debido a la poliomielitis en 1870. Por lo tanto, Eastman tuvo que decir adiós a su educación de la escuela y fue forzado para trabajar como muchacho de oficina en una compañía de seguros en Rochester en la edad de 15.

En 1875, Eastman cambió su carrera y trabajó como un contador menor para el banco de ahorros de Rochester. Él aventuró en como agente de propiedades inmobiliarias con la ayuda del dinero ahorrado de su carrera como trabajo por horas.

Él cayó en amor con la tecnología de la fotografía, y lo había motivado para aprender más sobre el negocio de la fotografía. Él comenzó a tomar el entrenamiento en fotografía a partir de dos maestros es decir George Selden y George Monroe. Él entonces suscribió al “diario británico de la fotografía” que le había dado muchos de nuevas ideas y lo había estimulado hacer la mejora a mano en tecnología seca de la fotografía. Él entendía que los fotógrafos británicos utilizaban las emulsiones de la gelatina, que seguían siendo sensibles después de que consiguieran secadas. Eastman comenzó a hacer su propia emulsión que él la desarrolló del fórmula que él estudió en un compartimiento británico.

Su inventiva y curiosidad dieron lugar a inventar un fórmula para la película del papel basado de la gelatina de la fabricación y una máquina para la capa seca de la placa. En 1880, él comenzó a vender sus placas secas mejoradas en el mercado y él también patentó su máquina seca de la placa que pavimentó la manera para fabricar las placas en números grandes. Él también obtuvo una patente británica para su máquina seca de la placa en 1879.

En 1888, Eastman inventó la cámara fotográfica de Kodak y el Eastman Kodak Company fue fundado en 1892, y era uno de los primeros E.E.U.U. compañías que iniciaron para producir en masa un producto estándar.

El extremo del Eastman vino en 1932 pero su era continúa. El desarrollo contemporáneo de la industria de la fotografía y de película se basa fuertemente en la invención del Eastman de la película del rodillo del celuloide. Eastman había demostrado que un inventor podría también ser un philanthropist como en todos, las donaciones de Eastman para las instituciones antedichas casi ha excedido $ 100 millones de dólares. Para lograr un factor del éxito en la industria competitiva de la garganta del corte, la respuesta lenta de Kodak a la proyección de imagen digital está creando aprehensiones. Kodak debe concentrarse en tecnología digital para guardarse con la fase que cambia de la industria eliminando tecnologías tradicionales mientras que guarda el área de la plaza fuerte de Kodak tiene gusto de la foto - los servicios y fuente que acaban de sectores del papel y de la tinta intacto.



October 15, 2009 | 8:05 AM Comentarios  0 comentarios



React to Changes in the Industry to Avoid Corporate Failures
Translations disponible también en: Inglés (original) | Francés | Español | Italiano | Alemán | Portugués | Sueco | Ruso | Holandés | Arabe

Reaccione a los cambios en la industria para evitar faltas corporativas
Automatically translated into Spanish thanks to WorldLingo
Faltas corporativas

porqué una cierta bancarrota corporativa de los archivos. Cuál es la razón de su falta. Las razones pueden variar de corporativo a corporativo pero si un fall de la compañía para reconocer el mercado en curso cambia y no puede cambiar sus funciones, puede hacer frente a ediciones en un futuro próximo.

Sydney Finkelstein de la escuela de la imagen doble por la lámina de Dartmouth del negocio ha estudiado cerca de 51 compañías que se habían derrumbado y las pérdidas sostenidas sobre centenares de millones de dólares y algunas forzadas para archivar bancarrota. Las compañías que eran tomaron para la investigación eran de todas las industrias de Johnson & Johnson a Samsung y de Boston Sox rojo a Motorola.

En su estudio de la investigación de faltas corporativas, Finkelstein categorizó las compañías falladas en cuatro categorías.

1) Interrupciones del nuevo negocio.

2) Faltas debido al cambio y a la innovación.

3) Interrupciones debido a la fusión y a las adquisiciones.

4) Faltas debido a los derrumbamientos de planes.

Él también describió las causas de faltas corporativas incluyendo tener alucinación de una compañía ideal, teniendo una visión incorrecta, después de las impresiones del pie de señales perdidas y enganchó a malos hábitos.

Finkelstein investigó las tres compañías es decir Motorola, Rubbermaid y Johnson & Johnson que atestiguaron pérdidas pesadas no porque hicieron algo incorrecto pero debido a su falta de no hacer ciertas cosas.

Seguían siendo inactivos y nunca probados adaptarse al cambio en tecnologías que está transformando. Estas compañías no pudieron tomar el conocimiento de desafíos competitivos y de preferencias del cliente siempre que cambiaban y no pudieron convenientemente replicar a estos cambios.

Johnson & Johnson era una vez que el líder de mercado en el stent que se está utilizando en la angioplastia que substituyó la necesidad de la cirugía para los cirujanos cardiacos en caso de los bloques en arterias. Sin embargo, el desafío de la demanda pesada, Johnson & Johnson no pudo llevar a cabo algunas mejoras de su producto y también culpó por estrategia que calibraba del precio pues era muy rígido en la tasación del producto de tal modo que declinaba ofrecer el descuento para las órdenes a granel.

Tomando la ventaja de la falta de Johnson & Johnson de considerar el riesgo del competidor, Guidant, una compañía europea penetró en el mercado de los E.E.U.U. prestando atención a los deseos del cliente y del distribuidor y el cerca de 70% capturado del mercado de Johnson & Johnson en los E.E.U.U. solamente.

Motorola es fabricante de los programas de la radio, de la televisión y del espacio e introdujo los paginadores y la célula telefona por primera vez en el mercado y tenía una cuota de mercado cerca de el 60% del mercado del teléfono de la célula en 1994.
Motorola prefirió permanecer con tecnología análoga mientras que los portadores sin hilos prefirieron Motorola para cambiar a digital. Aunque, Motorola poseyó algunas patentes en tecnología sin hilos, interesó algo en licenciar igual a sus competidores como Ericsson y Nokia. Motorola era feliz con los derechos recibidos pero nunca tomó en el cognisant el mercado digital cada vez mayor. La carencia de Motorola de la visión, del impassiveness y de no realizar la tecnología que cambiaba la aterrizó en última instancia para soltar su cuota de mercado a sus competidores.

En el caso de Rubbermaid, la compañía no pudo reaccionar a los cambios en tecnología del canal de distribución en tiempo apropiado. Cuando replicaron, era demasiado atrasado. Así, Rubbermaid introdujo programas del desplome para manejar un cambio y debido a los años de la inacción, nunca rindió cualquier resultado positivo.

La examinación de Finkelstein de tres compañías antedichas y de su inhabilidad de visualizar, se adapta al cambio en el panorama tiene lecciones para cualquier organización incluyendo ELLA las compañías. Así, si las compañías no identifican sus riesgos, no dan la prioridad igual y no emprender acciones correctivas a tiempo, ninguna duda será bancarrota de la limadura bajo capítulo 11 después.

Así, sigue habiendo la falta de estas compañías se puede atribuir su inercia y a tener de tal modo harping de madera-headedness en ideas fijas preconcebidas mientras que rechaza o descuida cualquier muestra del contrario.

Por lo tanto, para la supervivencia, mire el mercado constantemente y adóptelo a los cambios rápidamente para salvaguardar su cuota de mercado.

R.V.Seckar M.COM, F.C.S, A.I.C.A (Reino Unido) LLB.

June 12, 2009 | 6:21 AM Comentarios  0 comentarios





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